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Additive manufacturing is a term that encompasses a number of technologies that manufacture structures by building material up, layer by layer, and which are attractive due to a number of factors, such as the ability to rapidly produce complex components with controlled microstructures in a single step with reduced post processing requirements. Laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) is an additive manufacturing technique where a laser continuously melts successive layers of powder material, building up from a horizontal build plate.
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Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of Type 304 stainless steel (304 SS) in elevated temperature (288 °C) high purity water is typically an intergranular (IG) process with cracks propagating along grain boundaries, which are mesoscopic entities relevant on the grain scale. It follows then that the nature of the grain boundaries plays a significant role in SCC. In fact, for IG SCC to occur three things must be present: 1) stress; 2) a corrosive environment; and 3) susceptible grain boundaries. SCC growth rate (SCCGR) equations for 304SS in high temperature, high purity water, test orientation, temperature, material composition, and sensitization.
This standard practice provides technical and quality assurance guidelines for handling and installing nickel alloy, stainless steel, and titanium linings in air pollution control equipment (e.g., FGD systems, ducts, and stacks). The concepts and guidance included in this standard may also be useful in other process industries, but may require modification to meet the requirements of a particular process. This standard is intended to be a basis for preparation of a specification to be agreed on by contracting parties for the installation of wallpaper lining in air pollution control and other process equipment. It is the responsibility of users of this standard to determine the suitability of specific procedures, metals, and alloys for particular applications.
This standard practice is intended to provide guidance to those designing, fabricating, and/or maintaining refinery equipment and piping that are exposed to caustic environments.
Caustic is used in many petroleum refinery applications in a wide range of concentrations and temperatures. Caustic stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of carbon steel (CS) equipment has been reported in industry since the 1930s, e.g., in riveted steam boilers. NACE has published guidance for handling sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in the form of a “Caustic Service Chart” since at least the mid-1960s.
The Naval Nuclear Laboratory (NNL) has performed evaluations of SCC in 304/304L stainless steel since 2005 with the goal of developing an empirical equation. Testing has focused on the effects of temperature, stress intensity factor, material cold work, orientation, and sulfur content on SCC in hydrogenated water. Non-Arrhenius growth, termed herein as high temperature retardation (HTR), was observed in several studies where the SCC growth rate was found to slow at elevated temperature at low cold work levels in 316 and 304/304L stainless steel.
Geothermal fluid pipelines experience temperature changes on startup and shutdown that can be of the order 300 °C. Carbon steel pipeline design can include expansion loops and direction changes to allow for thermal expansion and contraction for the long lengths of pipeline commonly used from geothermal production wells to the geothermal power station and from the station to reinjection wells. In some instances, expansion compensators are used where there is insufficient area for such loops or where the pipe diameter is prohibitively large.
A methodology for evaluating the probability of baffle-former bolt cracking was developed for applicability to presurized water reactors.
A database of SCC growth rates in commercial austenitic stainless steels exposed to pressurized water reactor (PWR) primary water environments was developed and analyzed from international data in high temperature water, with an emphasis on deaerated or hydrogenated water while also including water containing oxygen. Crack growth rate (CGR) disposition equations were derived to reflect the effects of stress intensity factor (K), temperature, Vickers hardness (HV, to represent retained deformation), with enhancement factors for oxygen-containing, high corrosion potential conditions. The tolerance to chloride and sulfate impurities in PWR primary water was also evaluated.