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The current approach to corrosion severity prediction is to use long-term averages of environmental parameters (such as relative humidity, temperature, and pollutants), geographic features (such as coastal proximity), and witness coupon corrosion rates of indicator materials to classify an environment into one of a small number of severity categories. However, recent work has revealed that brief changes in environmental conditions—even those lasting only a few hours—can significantly affect total corrosion damage, and long-term averages of environmental conditions are not sufficient to accurately predict cumulative corrosion damage. To more accurately measure the corrosion damage from these short-term events, corrosion sensors are becoming increasingly popular. The frequent acquisition of data and increased measurement sensitivity are attractive features, however the data from these corrosion sensors is still difficult to interpret in many cases.
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To reduce maintenance costs while maintaining safety, different corrosion mitigation strategies have been utilized. In addition to new structural materials and advanced protective coatings, improved maintenance planning approaches, including Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) approaches, have seen growing use over the past decade. One goal of any Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) effort is to use all available on-aircraft data as well as field and depot-based maintenance information to align resources in a timely manner to ensure aircraft safety while reducing maintenance and repair costs.
Nuclear reactors inherently operate under extreme environments, and hence the materials and alloys utilized for their design are required to withstand unique conditions. Not only do these materials need to stand up to corrosion at high temperatures, but also in certain components must they resist microstructural and physical property changes due to radiation. Two of the major effects of radiation on reactor alloys and radiation-induced segregation (RIS) and precipitation, which have been observed in reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels, ferritic-martensitic steels, nickel base alloys, and austenitic stainless steels.
Major manufacturers of protective coatings, steel fabricators, painting contractors, galvanizers, and end users, were surveyed to identify surface preparation and coating application costs, coating material costs, typical industrial environments and available generic coatings for use within those environments, and expected coating service lives (practical maintenance time).
A significant portion of global energy demand is met using coal. Even with developing interest in other energy sources, use of coal to generate electricity is expected to remain steady due to overall rising global electricity needs. Most applications for coal combustion electricity generation utilize pulverized coal (PC) as the fuel.
In the oil and gas industry, solid particle erosion is a common challenge in pipelines, flowlines, and fitting components such as elbows. Elbows have been widely used to change the flow direction in industrial flowlines. When erosion occurs due to the impact of solid particles, it leads to significant financial and environmental threats.
Austenitic stainless steels are used for the core internal structures (bolts, baffles, formers) in Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR). During operational service, baffle to former bolts have been observed to undergo Irradiation-Assisted Stress Corrosion Cracking (IASCC), which is characterized by intergranular cracking. IASCC results from the material corrosion susceptibility, the microstructural changes induced by irradiation, the corrosive media and the mechanical loading. Numerous studies have been conducted to evaluate the complex interplay between the different factors, mostly focusing on InterGranular Stress Corrosion Cracking (IGSCC) of pre-irradiated samples in PWR environment. In particular, the oxidation behavior of grain boundaries and the mechanical loading of grain boundaries have been assessed in details. Depending on the oxidation time and the GB nature, oxide penetration along GB has been observed. The intergranular oxide is composed of (Nix,Fe1-x)Cr2O4 spinels. However, all grain boundaries (GBs) do not have the same oxidation behavior, and it has been reported that high angle grain boundaries show higher oxidation susceptibility than special grain boundaries. Radiation induced segregation at grain boundaries might also lead to higher susceptibility to intergranular oxidation. Irradiation also modifies the deformation mechanisms in austenitic steels resulting in strain localization which is believed to be an important factor in IASCC initiation as it can lead to local increase of the stress due to dislocation pile-ups at GB.
Solid particle erosion is a significant challenge for the oil and gas industry, especially on pipeline fittings such as the elbow that change the flow direction. In the past few decades, most of the erosion investigations were done on standard elbows experimentally or numerically using the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) methodology. For example, Othayq et al. investigated two standard elbows in a series of 3-inch (76.2 mm) pipe diameters in gas-solid flow.