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Additive manufacturing is a term that encompasses a number of technologies that manufacture structures by building material up, layer by layer, and which are attractive due to a number of factors, such as the ability to rapidly produce complex components with controlled microstructures in a single step with reduced post processing requirements. Laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) is an additive manufacturing technique where a laser continuously melts successive layers of powder material, building up from a horizontal build plate.
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This paper describes the evolution of production standards for Alloy 600 tubing, the historical performance of steam generator tubing, and the results of microstructural analyses of archive and pulled tubing samples from commercial PWRs to address these issues. Alloy 600 is a corrosion-resistant nickel-base alloy that is used in a variety of applications that require good resistance to general corrosion, high strength, and good formability. It has been used extensively for steam generator tubing in commercial nuclear power plants, and this experience led to the use of several different types of Alloy 600 material.
After the Fukushima accident there has been a large push globally for accident tolerant fuels (ATF) to increase the grace period during an accident, that is, the time during which operators may be able to avoid major consequences by undertaking mitigating actions. At Fukushima, the oxidation of the Zircaloy cladding produced hydrogen gas, that contributed to the failure of the primary containment. A concept for ATF is to coat zirconium-based cladding with chromium to inhibit the oxidation of the cladding and reduce hydrogen production.
MIC is a major threat to oil pipelines because it reduces the service life of pipelines and can potentially leads to catatrophes. Microbial communities commonly associated with pipeline corrosion include sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB), acid producing bacteria (APB), acetogenic bacteria and methanogens. In a field environment, SRB, APB and other microbes often live in a synergistic biofilm consortium. Sessile SRB are often the main culprit of MIC. They can utilize sulfate as the terminal electron acceptor and various carbon sources and elemental iron as electron donors. Corrosive APB biofilms are also a contributing factor in an acidic environment because they release H+ which is an oxidant.
Common materials employed in catalytic reforming unit tubes are typically resistant to carburization due to protective chromium oxide films, but under low excess oxygen conditions can become compromised and allow carbon penetration and carbide formation at the exposed surface. Embrittlement and material wastage as a result of these mechanisms causes premature failures, with production loss, in addition to shutdown maintenance and replacement costs. Carburization in this environment is simulated in this paper through a pack carburizing method designed to create an environment optimal for diffusing carbon in an ASTM 335 9Cr-1Mo tube material.
Scale is an adherent deposit of inorganic compounds precipitated from water onto surfaces. Most oilfield waters contain certain amounts of dissolved calcium, barium or strontium salts. The mineral scale can be formed by chemical reactions in the formation water itself, by mixing of formation water with injected seawater, or by mixing of the well streams of two incompatible oilfield waters. In carbonate reservoirs, when calcium is deposited as calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate scale, a loss of production and increased maintenance expenses can result. Therefore, effective mitigation of scaling potential is of importance to the oil producers.
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of Type 304 stainless steel (304 SS) in elevated temperature (288 °C) high purity water is typically an intergranular (IG) process with cracks propagating along grain boundaries, which are mesoscopic entities relevant on the grain scale. It follows then that the nature of the grain boundaries plays a significant role in SCC. In fact, for IG SCC to occur three things must be present: 1) stress; 2) a corrosive environment; and 3) susceptible grain boundaries. SCC growth rate (SCCGR) equations for 304SS in high temperature, high purity water, test orientation, temperature, material composition, and sensitization.
Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is used as a catalyst in the alkylation process to react isobutane with olefin feeds to manufacture a high octane alkylate product used in gasoline blending. The HF catalyst is added in its anhydrous liquid form (< 400 ppmw H2O) but as it circulates in the reaction system, residual water in the Paper No. 17520 liquid hydrocarbon feed is absorbed by the acid such that the circulating reaction acid builds up a small percentage (0.5 to 2.0 mass%) of water. This water/HF mixture is also referred to as rich HF (RHF). In addition, the alkylation reactions also will generate fluorocarbons and acid soluble oils (ASOs).
Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking (IG-SCC) plays an important role as one of the most recognized degradation phenomena in Nuclear Power Plants (NPP). SCC is both multi-disciplinary with many parameters that are dependent on each other. This study was based on developing a multi-physics finite element model for IG-SCC prediction in unirradiated structural materials for non-pressure vessel components in NPPs. The environment considered was boiling water reactor (BWR) with normal water chemistry (NWC), containing approx. 200ppb oxidant (O2 + H2O2) and varying aggressive ions Cl-. The model was focused on the slip-oxidation model, where a crack is advancing by anodic dissolution, passivation, and oxide rupture at the crack tip. The rupture of the oxide film is due to the constant stresses applied creating slips in the bulk material which fractures the oxide.
Thermally insulated pipelines have wide networks globally that are used to transport various chemicals, hydrocarbons as well as steam. CUI (corrosion under insulation), external SCC (stress corrosion cracking) and corrosion fatigue are some of the prominent damage mechanisms which may occur on the external surface of insulated pipes/ pipelines that in turn jeopardize the long-term integrity and operations. The moisture is undoubtedly the key contributor behind the above said external degradations of metallic surfaces and can come under thermal insulations via seepage and/ or condensation. Various factors that influence the extent of moisture intrusion are the design of insulated system(s), type and age of insulation, operating temperature of pipeline(s) as well as environmental and neighborhood conditions.
Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) is a key oilfield problem associated with microbial activity, and can be described as the accelerated corrosion of surfaces (usually concrete or iron/steel) by the biological action of naturally present or externally introduced microorganisms. MIC incidents can occur anywhere that a system is exposed to the environment, where microorganisms can enter often via fluid flow and colonize various surfaces for their own growth. MIC is a persistent concern in practically any upstream, midstream, or downstream system where water could be present for microorganism colonization, including topside, subsurface, aerobic (with oxygen), anaerobic (without oxygen), and at extreme temperatures and salinities.
There are mainly two commonly adopted criteria for controlling CP. One is the polarized potential criterion and the other one is the polarization shift criterion1. These criteria are not the true criterion for cathodic protection; they are the surrogate criteria (see below). The polarized potential criterion is to control the instant-off structure-to-electrolyte potential within a specified range. For example, the instant-off potential should be between -0.85 and -1.2 V vs Cu/CuSO4 (VCSE) for pipelines buried in soil. The polarization shift criterion is to control the polarization of a CP-protected structure to a given minimum value and this minimum value is usually 100 mV. The polarization is determined either by the difference between the corrosion potential of the structure measured before CP is applied and the instant-off structure-to-electrolyte potential, or by the difference between the depolarized potential of the structure and the instant-off structure-to-electrolyte potential.